Clayton State University Language & Literature

Clayton State University Department of Language & Literature

Writing Guidelines - Mini Handbook

Content
Organization
Mechanics, Grammar and Style

Content

The guideline for content considers a number of factors:

Fulfillment of the assignment. In a writing assignment, an instructor may specify exact guidelines or allow some flexibility in a writer's approach to the subject matter. In either case, however, the assignment should be clear on the degree of flexibility. How well the writer follows these directions is a consideration in content.
Familiarity with the subject. In assessing a writer's demonstrated familiarity with the subject matter, an instructor examines stated and implied content to determine the impact that accurate as well as misstated or omitted information has on the effectiveness of the written product.
Range and quality of knowledge. Depending on the specifications of an assignment, the range and quality may include evidence of the writer's familiarity with both primary and secondary source material.
Sufficiency and suitability of content to support and develop ideas. The writer should use suitable and sufficient content to support and develop his or her ideas in the assignment.
Awareness of the audience. Depending on the writing situation, audiences may vary, but some typical readers include the general reading public, the specialist, and the instructor.
- The general reading public is a literate group that reads newspapers and popular magazines. This audience knows basic information about a variety of topics and expects clear, straightforward content based on common experiences and free of specialized jargon and esoteric details or evidence.
- The specialist has a more thorough knowledge of a specific subject. Writing for such an audience should reflect a knowledge of the given specialty and an awareness of the reader's expertise in this area. Thus, the content is usually more sophisticated and esoteric than that appropriate to the general reading public.
- Even when a writing assignment specifies a particular reader, the instructor remains a part of the audience. Instructors expect writing to reflect a conscientious, thorough attempt to consider the specific reader's needs and expectations. The writer should not assume that the instructor (or any other reader, for that matter) will fill in content that the writer fails to include.
- Diction, or the writer's choice of words, should be exact, appropriate, and effective in conveying the intended meaning to the reader. Specifically, diction in this criterion considers (1) the writer's awareness of the reader's comprehension level, including appropriate use of definitions, (2) the writer's sensitivity to the connotation of words, and (3) the writer's reference to the reader.

Organization

Well-organized writing consists of the orderly presentation of content. The writer enhances the logical movement of ideas from beginning to end by the following:

writing clear introductory, body (often called developmental), and concluding paragraphs;
maintaining unity and coherence;
providing support for the focused topic; and
providing transitions that move the reader from key point to key point.

A paragraph is a group of sentences combined to develop a unit of thought. Paragraphing allows the writer to subdivide material into manageable parts and then to arrange these parts in a unified whole. A written presentation usually includes an introductory paragraph, several body paragraphs, and a concluding paragraph.
- An introductory paragraph usually provides relevant background or lead-in information appropriate to the purpose and audience, captures the reader's interest, and presents a thesis. A length of 3-5 sentences is typical for an introductory paragraph in most writing situations.
  - Lead-in: Including a brief story or anecdote, giving pertinent statistics, or asking a provocative question are a few ways to appeal to readers in an introductory paragraph. A key goal in this paragraph is both to engage readers and to prepare them for what follows.
  - Typically, an introductory paragraph contains a thesis statement, which presents the central point or idea of the written presentation. An effective thesis focuses on the subject at hand (the topic to be discussed) and usually implies a purpose (to inform or persuade). The thesis may also state subdivisions of the material to come.
- Body paragraphs comprise the major part of written presentations. While 5-8 sentences is typical for a well-developed body paragraph, length may vary according to purpose, audience, format, or context. Key characteristics of an effective body paragraph typically include a topic sentence, unity, coherence, and development.
  - A body paragraph is focused on a main idea that is usually stated as the paragraph's topic sentence. Typically, this topic sentence is a rather general statement that is then developed by subsequent sentences containing details, examples, and other types of support. Many writers place the topic sentence as the first sentence of the paragraph to facilitate readability, but placement may vary according to the writing situation and reader.
  - Unity: A unified paragraph maintains its focus on one main idea (expressed in the topic sentence). Each sentence in the paragraph should relate to and elaborate upon this main idea.
  - A paragraph has coherence when its sentences are related to one another and flow smoothly from one to another. Effective coherence in a paragraph enables the reader to follow the writer's thoughts and provides a sense of continuity.
  - Development: This standard considers body paragraphs as part of an organizational framework.
- A concluding paragraph logically follows the previous paragraphs and provides a sense of completion and resolution.

Mechanics, Grammar and Style

Elements considered in this category are format, punctuation, sentence structure (including sentence patterns, sentence completeness, and conventions of grammar and usage and standard English), and style.

Format includes the following:
- Manuscript Form: This aspect involves neatness and legibility as well as format considerations related to manuscript appearance, whether handwritten or typed. Although standards may vary according to discipline, these requirements often include specifications for the following:
  - title pages and other headings;
  - pagination;
  - indentations, margins and other spacing requirements;
  - outline specifications;
  - graphics and typeface, including use of italics, underlining, and bold type.
- Spelling: This aspect considers a writer's competency in standardized spelling, including appropriate separation and hyphenation of words.
  - In addition to obvious misspellings, this aspect considers a writer's confusion about using appropriate homonyms and words that sound somewhat alike:
    Models:
    - Incorrect: There excuses are to flimsy to be taken seriously.
      Correct: Their excuses are too flimsy to be taken seriously.
    - Incorrect: The shop no longer excepts credit cards for any of are purchases under twenty dollars.
      Correct: The shop no longer accepts credit cards for any of our purchases under twenty dollars.
    - Incorrect: A unprepared team is likely to loose every game in a short playoff series.
      Correct: An unprepared team is likely to lose every game in a short playoff series.
  - Misspellings include problems with word separation:
    Models:
    - Incorrect: Eventhough their scores on highschool writing tests maybe acceptable, freshmen some times seem unprepared for the demands of college composition.
      Correct: Even though their scores on high school writing tests may be acceptable, freshmen sometimes seem unprepared for the demands of college composition.
  - A writer's competency with hyphenation includes each of the following:
    - appropriately dividing words according to syllables at the end of one line and at the beginning of the next line, and
    - appropriately hyphenating compound words (such as ten-year-old daughter).
    Model:
    - Incorrect: Mel's mother in law, an eminent mathematician, is questioning a formula long accepted in academic circles.
      Correct: Mel's mother-in-law, an eminent mathematician, is questioning a formula long accepted in academic circles.
- Use of Abbreviations, Numbers, and Symbols: Requirements for abbreviations, numbers, and symbols may differ according to discipline, but some general guidelines are as follows:
  - Abbreviations used with people's names (Dr., Ms., Jr., Ph. D., and others) are usually acceptable. However, ones such as etc. and t.v. (for television) are often unacceptable.
  - A number consisting of three or more words is usually written as a number (273 rather than two hundred seventy-three), a number consisting of two words is usually acceptable in either form (55 or fifty-five), and a number consisting of one word is usually written as a word (thirteen or million).
    Model:
    - Incorrect: Over a 1,000 people jammed into the small auditorium to hear the 3 musicians in concert.
      Correct: Over a thousand people jammed into the small auditorium to hear the three musicians in concert.
    - Incorrect: Mr. & Mrs. Roberts spent $47 dollars for breakfast at that restaurant.
      Correct: Mr. and Mrs. Roberts spent $47 for breakfast at that restaurant.
- Capitalization: Some rules for using capital letters have been established through custom, but some of these rules allow for flexibility.
  - In general, as names become more specific, they are more likely to be capitalized.
    Model:
    - Incorrect: Greg's Foreign Language courses in College were far more challenging than the spanish II that he took at Sleepy Hollow high school.
      Correct: Greg's foreign language courses in college were far more challenging than the Spanish II that he took at Sleepy Hollow High School.
  - In general, the first word, the last word, and other important words in a title and the first word of a direct quotation are capitalized. (Capitalization of titles may vary according to the documentation style used. See Documentation Format, Part V, below.)
    Model:
    - Incorrect: As his birthday approaches each Spring, dad inevitably asks me, "are you going to renew my subscription to News Of The World Magazine?"
      Correct: As his birthday approaches each spring [seasons are usually not capitalized], Dad inevitably asks me, "Are you going to renew my subscription to News of the World magazine?"
- Documentation Format: Writers use particular format models to document information from primary and secondary sources. The most frequently used documentation styles--including Modern Language Association (MLA), American Psychological Association (APA), Chicago Manual (CM), and Council of Biology Editors (CBE)--specify guidelines for in-text citations (or for footnotes) and for bibliographies (also called lists of sources or works cited lists). These guidelines include specific instructions for ordering information, indenting, capitalizing, and punctuating in both in-text citations and in bibliographies and for alphabetizing in bibliographies.
Punctuation considers both basic and more sophisticated punctuation.
- BASIC PUNCTUATION: Below are listed some of the most frequent applications of basic punctuation.
  - COMMA: Below are four of the most common uses for the comma.
    - Independent clauses: A comma comes before a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, nor, yet, so, for) connecting independent clauses. (An independent clause contains a subject and verb and can stand alone as a complete sentence.)
      Model:
      - The situation was perilous, but one chance of escape remained.
    - Introductory elements: A comma follows introductory words, phrases, and dependent clauses in a sentence.
      Models:
      - However, the committee will soon convene to elect a president. (introductory word)
      - In a small town on the river's western shore, lines of applicants waited patiently for the offices to open. (introductory prepositional phrases)
      - Because Shakespeare's plays are so entertaining, they are often made into films. (introductory dependent clause)
    - Series: Commas follow each item in a series except the last.
      Models:
      - The teacher read the essay, graded it, and returned it to the student.
      - Vaccinations for cholera, smallpox, and polio are effective in curtailing these dreaded diseases.
    - Parenthetical elements (interrupters): Commas separate an interrupting word or group of words (including full dates and full addresses) from the rest of the sentence.
      Models:
      - The New River, which winds through the southern Appalachians, is reputed to be the second oldest river in the world. (Since New River specifically identifies the river, the additional information in the which clause is separated with commas.)
      - A river which offers year-round recreational facilities can benefit a community. (Since a river is not identified by name, the specific information in the which clause is necessary for identification and should not be separated with commas.)
      - An ideal way to see a country, unless time is limited, is to travel by foot.
      - She has an appointment on Wednesday, April 24, with the doctor.
  - APOSTROPHE: The following are the most frequent uses of the apostrophe
    - Possession: Nouns form the singular possessive by adding an apostrophe and then an s. If the plural of a noun ends in s, the plural possessive adds an apostrophe after the s.
      Models:
      - The student's car was vandalized. (singular possessive)
      - Charles's [or Charles'] best friend plans to enroll in college next year. (singular possessive of words ending in s)
      - The world's record for the marathon has yet to fall to 2:05. (singular possessive)
      - Several ladies' clubs meet regularly downtown. (plural possessive)
      - Four months' severance pay is a benefit in the workers' contracts. (plural possessive)
    - Contractions: An apostrophe indicates omissions of letters in a word.
      Model:
      - It's still raining. Don't you miss the sunshine?
  - END PUNCTUATION: The period and the question mark are the most important marks of end punctuation.
    - A period concludes a sentence which expresses a statement, a mild command, or an indirect question.
      Models:
      - Two hours of study out of class is a standard requirement for every hour in class. (statement)
      - Do your best at every task you undertake. (mild command)
      - I asked if the homework assignment was due this week. (indirect question)
    - A question mark follows a direct question.
      Models
      - Will you be eating dinner with us this evening?
      - Which word processing program do you want to use?
- MORE SOPHISTICATED PUNCTUATION: Listed below are frequent applications of some of the more sophisticated punctuation marks (the semicolon, colon, and quotation marks).
  - SEMICOLON: The most common use of the semicolon is to separate two independent clauses containing closely related ideas.
    Models:
    - The tornado struck the town; it quickly demolished much of Main Street.
    - Often, young children are curious and reach for harmful objects; therefore, dangerous articles must be kept from them at all times.
  - COLON: The most common use of the colon is to separate a list from an introductory sentence. Sometimes, the introductory sentence contains the words as follows or the following.
    Model:
    - The new budget contained drastic cutbacks in the following areas: defense, foreign aid, education, and welfare.
  - QUOTATION MARKS: The following are two of the most important uses of quotation marks.
    - Exact words: Quotation marks surround a speaker's or writer's exact words.
      Models:
      - Calvin Coolidge once said, "The business of America is business."
      - In The Elements of Style, E. B. White notes, "With some writers, style not only reveals the spirit of the man but reveals his identity, as surely as would his fingerprints."
    - Titles of short works: Quotation marks surround the titles of such short works as stories, poems, essays, articles, and songs.
      Models:
      - Bobbie Ann Mason's best known short story is "Shiloh."
      - The popular "Summertime" is a song from George Gershwin's Porgy and Bess.
- SENTENCE STRUCTURE
  The aspect of SENTENCE STRUCTURE involves the writer's use of the elements of sentence structure to establish and clarify meaning within sentences. Of concern here is the writer's use of sentence patterns (coordination, subordination, parallelism, and modifier placement) to establish relationships among ideas. In addition, basic conventions of grammar and usage (e.g., subject-verb agreement, pronoun forms, and verb forms) are considered. Finally, this criterion deals with the mastery of sentence completeness (avoiding fragments, run-ons, comma splices, and omitted words).
  - SENTENCE PATTERNS: A writer's uses of words, phrases, and clauses demonstrate his or her awareness of relationships among ideas in sentences.
    - Coordination (usually with and, but, or, nor, yet, so, or for) demonstrates ideas that are roughly equal (or coordinate). Thus, coordination uses grammatically equivalent parts to achieve balance in a sentence.
      Models:
      - The clinic ran out of serum before half the patients were treated, and another shipment was not scheduled for ten days.
      - Each of the generals worried about the chances of a successful landing, for overnight the coastal weather became cold and stormy.
    - Subordination (often with words such as although, because, if, when, who, and others) presents ideas that have more complex relationships (such as time, contrast, cause-effect, or order of importance).
      Models:
      - Before the Administration could officially acknowledge American involvement in that part of Southeast Asia, several newspapers had already printed detailed reports about covert military operations. (time relationship with before)
      - First, the operator must key in the customer's phone number so that he or she can gain access to the appropriate account. (cause-effect relationship with so that)
      - Visitors flying into New Mexico on official state business usually arrive in Albuquerque, not the capital city of Santa Fe, which lacks any sizeable airport facilities. (additional information supplied beginning with which)
    - Parallel construction is the comparable wording of expressions that are similar in content and function. This deliberate repetition helps create a rhythm that enhances clarity and emphasis.
      Models:
      - The disadvantages include wasting considerable time in traffic, adding more than five miles to the distance, and probably missing the opening ceremonies. (-ing phrases)
      - The patient claimed that he was usually either too busy to visit his friends or too depressed to leave his room. (after each part of a paired expression such as either. . . or)
      - In time, the manager learned which colleagues could be trusted, what battles were worth fighting, and how the chain of command could be manipulated to her advantage. (series of dependent clauses)
    - Misplaced modifiers occur when words, phrases, or clauses are illogically or unclearly placed in a sentence.
      Models:
      - Ineffective: The recipe only calls for a teaspoon of horseradish.
        Effective: The recipe calls for only a teaspoon of horseradish.
      - Ineffective: The man saw a corpse swimming in Lake Michigan.
        Effective: Swimming in Lake Michigan, the man saw a corpse.
    - Dangling modifiers usually occur when introductory phrases or clauses do not logically modify the subject of the sentence.
      Models
      - Ineffective: Lost over the stormy Atlantic, the North Star guided the pilot's course.
        Effective: When the pilot was lost over the stormy Atlantic, the North Star guided his course. or
        Lost over the stormy Atlantic, the pilot was guided in his course by the North Star.
      - Ineffective: After completing metamorphosis, it takes several months before the frog is mature enough to breed.
        Effective: After completing metamorphosis, the frog becomes mature enough to breed in several months.
  - The aspect of GRAMMAR AND USAGE considers whether a writer appropriately uses established conventions of grammar and usage to enhance sentence clarity and meaning.
    - Subject-verb agreement demands that singular subjects have singular verbs and that plural subjects have plural verbs. A verb ending in s (notably is or was or other verbs adding s or es) is singular.
      Models:
      - A list of missing articles is [not are since list is the subject] posted on the bulletin board outside the student lounge.
    - Pronoun reference problems occur if the antecedent that a pronoun refers to is vague or ambiguous.
      Models:
      - Each summer the birds raid our cherry trees and manage to gobble down at least half of the cherries [not them].
      - Michelle landed the position as a plumber's helper because she studied plumbing [not it] through a correspondence course.
      - The county soon filled in the potholes, repainted the center lines, and replaced the stolen stop sign; these repairs [not just this] pacified the irate residents.
    - Pronoun-antecedent agreement means that pronouns must agree with their antecedents in number and person.
      Models:
      - Every member of the women's coalition showed up to voice her [not their] opinion about the pending legislation.
      - The delivery company states in its [not their] charter that the couriers are responsible for the upkeep of their [referring to couriers] own cars.
      - When I stepped into the street, the fog was so thick that I [not you] could hardly see ten feet in front of me [not you].
    - Pronoun case errors occur when writers use an inappropriate form of a pronoun in a sentence.
      Models:
      - My instructor, my lab partner, and I [the subject form, not me or myself, is needed] attended the recent conference in Buffalo.
      - Just between you and me [not I], I thought his remarks were inappropriate.
      - No one has mentioned anything about his [the possessive form, not him, is needed] losing the match in straight sets.
    - Verb form errors usually include neglecting to add -ed to certain past tense forms of regular verbs or using an inappropriate form of an irregular verb.
      Models:
      - That company used [not use] to produce over a thousand tractors a year.
      - Each child at the preschool is supposed [not suppose] to be vaccinated by now.
      - According to one survey, the average citizen drank [not drunk] nearly twenty gallons of milk last year.
      - Because of atmospheric ozone depletion last year, sunbathers in the Southern Hemisphere, especially those who lay [not laid] out during midday hours, increased [not increase] their chances of contracting skin cancer.
    - Verb tense consistency means that writers avoid unnecessary shifts in verb tense, especially with present and past tense.
      Model:
      - The man that I sat next to in the diner suddenly appeared [not appears] and asked[not asks] me if he could [not can] get a ride to San Antonio.
  - SENTENCE COMPLETENESS: Sentence completeness shows a writer's awareness of where sentences begin and end and what words are necessary to include in sentences.
    - Sentence fragments occur when a writer omits a necessary verb or subject or does not write an independent clause.
      Models:
      - Incorrect: A failed attempt to become the first pilot to circumnavigate the globe. (no verb)
        Correct: This story chronicles a failed attempt to become the first pilot to circumnavigate the globe.
      - Incorrect: Whenever jurors get selected for a trial in Judge Allen's courtroom. (no independent clause)
        Correct: Whenever jurors get selected for a trial in Judge Allen's courtroom, they can expect explicit directions about appropriate behavior.
    - Run-on sentences and comma splices occur when a writer does not appropriately punctuate the end of a sentence.
      Models:
      - Incorrect: You do not have to worry about responding to that letter it is unsolicited junk mail.
        Correct: You do not have to worry about responding to that letter. It is unsolicited junk mail. or
        You do not have to worry about responding to that letter; it is unsolicited junk mail. or
        You do not have to worry about responding to that letter since it is unsolicited junk mail.
      - Incorrect: The manager kept his job even after news of the scandal broke,however, his power began to diminish almost immediately.
        Correct: The manager kept his job even after news of the scandal broke. However, his power began to diminish almost immediately. or
        The manager kept his job even after news of the scandal broke; however, his power began to diminish almost immediately. or
        The manager kept his job even after news of the scandal broke, but his power began to diminish almost immediately. or
        Although the manager kept his job even after news of the scandal broke, his power began to diminish almost immediately.
- Style
  Since STYLE requirements may vary from discipline to discipline and from assignment to assignment, the appropriateness of a writer's voice or personality may depend on the situation. The following considerations, however, often affect a writer's style and should receive some attention in assessments of this criterion.
  - Appropriate tone in writing often depends on maintaining a level of formality suitable to the context. Most writing assignments in college require a middle level or a slightly formal level of style. Therefore, writers should avoid both the pretentiousness of overly formal writing and the informality of slang and colloquial language.
    Models:
    - Too Formal: A suspicion has commenced amongst my friends that the raison d'etre for his resignation is twofold.
      Improved: My friends suspect that he has two reasons for resigning.
    - Too Informal: Jim's trying to be cool about flunking the test, but we know that he's going crazy inside.
      Improved: Jim is trying to act nonchalant about failing the test, but we know that he is disappointed.
  - Conciseness means economy in word use. A concise writer does not waste a reader's time with empty words, unnecessary repetition, and wordiness.
    Models:
    - Ineffective: At this point in time, employees will be able to enroll in a new insurance plan that begins during the month of July.
      Improved: Employees can now enroll in a new insurance program that begins in July.
    - Ineffective: In today's modern society, students often cannot graduate in four years due to the fact that they have full- or part-time jobs.
      Improved: Students today often cannot graduate in four years because they have full- or part-time jobs.
    - Ineffective: The reason that this drug is no longer on the market is because it has dangerous side effects.
      Improved: This drug is no longer on the market because it has dangerous side effects.
    - Ineffective: Olivia is the type of woman whom we need in an administrative position.
      Improved: We need Olivia in an administrative position.
  - Precision is related to conciseness because writing that uses fewer words to present ideas is usually more precise and more concrete. A writer can add precision to his or her style (a) by appropriately using active and passive voice; (b) by replacing, when possible, be verbs with action verbs; (c) by using exact rather than vague terminology; and (d) by avoiding cliches.
    - A sentence in active voice has a subject that is the doer of the verb's action; therefore, a sentence in active voice is usually more direct. A sentence in passive voice, on the other hand, replaces the doer of the verb's action with another subject, thus making the sentence more indirect.
      Models:
      - Ineffective: Likely voters in that district are currently being surveyed by pollsters. (passive voice)
        Improved: Pollsters are currently surveying likely voters in that district. (active voice)
      - Ineffective: The challenges of religious belief are explored in the poetry of both John Donne and Gerard Manley Hopkins. (passive voice)
        Improved: Both John Donne and Gerard Manley Hopkins explore the challenges of religious belief in their poetry. (active voice)
    - Using active voice rather than passive voice reduces the number of be verbs (such as is, are, was, were, and being) and replaces them with more concrete verbs. Other strategies that eliminate be verbs in favor of more active, concrete verbs make writing more precise.
      Models:
      - Ineffective: There were crowds of well-wishers lining the parade route.
        Improved: Crowds of well-wishers lined the parade route. (eliminates there + be verb)
      - Ineffective: It is obvious that the applicant fails to meet the minimal requirements.
        Improved: Obviously, the applicant fails to meet the minimal requirements. (eliminates it + be verb)
      - Ineffective: The supervisor was not in agreement with his workers about break policy.
        Improved: The supervisor disagreed with his workers about break policy. (replaces be verb with more concrete action verb disagreed)
    - Two additional ways to improve writing style involve (1) substituting vague, imprecise words with more exact words and (2) eliminating overstatements.
      Models:
      - Ineffective: Newspaper reporters are always complaining that many television commentators have gained a lot of attention with very sensationalized journalism.
        Improved: Newspaper reporters often complain that some television commentators have gained too much attention with sensationalized journalism.
    - Clichés are overused and almost meaningless expressions that no longer have their original vitality. A few of the most common are the following:
      - last but not least
      - sadder and wiser
      - slowly but surely
      - trials and tribulations
      - easier said than done
      - better late than never
      - the finer things in life
      - ups and downs
      - a dog-eat-dog world
      - over the hill
      Many clichés originated as fresh, interesting examples of figurative language, particularly as similes (comparisons using like, as, or than) or as metaphors (implied comparisons). However, since clichés have lost their original effectiveness, writers should avoid them.
      
      Models:
      - Ineffective: In his little workshop, Mr. Lipscomb was as busy as a bee all morning. (a cliched simile)
        Improved: In his little workshop, Mr. Lipscomb untiringly glued and fitted the wooden scraps together all morning.
      - Ineffective: Young Byron burned the candle at both ends. (a clichéd metaphor)
        Improved: Young Byron's behavior was dissolute and scandalous.
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